Chapter 2. Units of Measure

Chapter 2. Electronic Units of Measure

Physicists entered the realm of quantum physics when they first invented FUPCONs to create equations from their proportions that dealt with discrete, quantized interactions. These early FUPCONs and the physicists, who most contributed to their creation, are, by order of invention:

1. Gravitational constant, G, with Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, and Isaac Newton;

2. Velocity of light, c, with Hippolyte Fizeau, Jean Foucault, and Albert Michelson;

3. Permittivity constant, ε₀, with John Robison, Henry Cavendish, and Charles Coulomb;

4. Permeability constant, µ₀, with William Gilbert, Hans Ørsted, and André Ampère;

5. Planck's constant, h, with Heinrich Reubens, Wilhelm Wien, and Max Planck.

None of these physicists could have realized that the magnitudes of the quantum attributes of the quantized phenomena with which they worked dictated the values of these FUPCONs because, at the time, their magnitudes were unknown. However, the reality of these magnitudes forced them to insert FUPCONs into their proportions to create equations.

The absence of FUPCONs in an equation, which deals with an elementary particle, means that the equation uses the quantum attributes of that elementary particle as its units of measure. Therefore, we realize that the magnitude of each of the elementary particle's quantum attributes directly affects the solution to the equation.

Apparently, an equation, which represents interactions between a particular quantity of elementary particles, is composed of the sum total of each and every particle's integral (whole-number) contribution to the aggregate result.

A. Unitary Attributes of Elementary Particles

Elementary particles possess basic quantum attributes of mass, threshold temperature, electrical charge, wavelength, and virtual lifetime. Nature dictates the magnitude of each of these attributes. Combinations of them as factors form derived quantum attributes, such as displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, energy, and frequency. For information about derived quantum attributes, see Appendix D and in Appendix E, Tables II, III, IV, and V.

Each type of elementary particle possesses a particular set of quantum attributes. For example, the electron possesses natural magnitudes for mass, temperature, charge, length, and time (see Table I in Appendix E). Likewise, so does the proton (see Table VI in Appendix E) and the elementary particle of matter, which, for lack of an existing name, I call, in this book, a masson (see Tables VII and VIII in Appendix E).

An elementary particle possesses natural dimensional attributes, which establish the boundary between our deterministic Real World and its underlying, random Quantum World. This Quantum World appears to be discontinuous such that an elementary particle's physical state exists only in integral multiples of whole numbers of its quantum attributes. This phenomenon creates a quantum reality, which our senses cannot perceive and our minds cannot easily understand.

B. Electronic Attributes

The magnitudes of the electron's attributes were the first to be discovered. Years ago, the work of a multitude of geniuses, including L. Boltzmann, A. Compton, H. Fletcher, J. Gibbs, D. Glaser, P. Kusch, H. A. Lorentz, J. C. Maxwell, R. A. Millikan, M. Planck, J. J. Thomson, J. S. Townsend, K. von Klitzing, and C. T. R. and H. A. Wilson, discovered or contributed to the discovery of the values of these electronic magnitudes.

Their historic values are irrational multiples of corresponding Système International (SI) units of measure. For information about the SI of unit measures, see Appendix A.

The single-dimensional quantum attributes of the electron are:

(Dimension Unitary Attribute Code)	Attribute Code	Attribute Value in SI Units	Equation Number
Mass, electronic (M)	m_e	9.1 × 10^-31 kg	(1
Temperature, threshold (K)	k_e	5.9 × 10⁹ K	(2
Charge, electrical (Q)	q_e	1.6 × 10^-19 C	(3
Length, electron Compton (L)	λ_e	2.4 × 10^-12 m	(4
Time, virtual lifetime (T)	t_e	8.1 × 10^-21 s	(5

See Table I in Appendix E. Also, see the first-six grayed rows in Appendix F. Notice that (λ_e·t_e^-1) is equal to the speed of light.

All of the derived quantum attributes of the electron contain two or more of these basic quantum attributes as factors in their formulas. For information about these derived attributes, see Appendix D and Tables II, III, IV, and V in Appendix E.

C. Système Électronique (SE) of Unit Measures

Based upon the quantum attributes of the electron, I created a natural Système Électronique (SE) of unit measures. In the SE, the magnitude of each quantum attribute assumes a value of one and becomes an SE unit of measure. The SI units convert to SE units as follows:

SI Unit	SI Unit in Terms of an SE Unit value in denominator value in numerator	Equation Number
1 kg	(9.1 × 10^-31)^-1 m_e = 1.1 × 10³⁰ m_e	(6
1 K	(5.9 × 10⁹)^-1 k_e = 1.7 × 10^-10 k_e	(7
1 C	(1.6 × 10^-19)^-1 q_e = 6.2 × 10¹⁸ q_e	(8
1 m	(2.4 × 10^-12)^-1 λ_e = 4.1 × 10¹¹ λ_e	(9
1 s	(8.1 × 10^-21)^-1 t_e = 1.2 × 10²⁰ t_e	(10

D. Integral Attributes

In the Quantum World, every basic or derived attribute of an elementary particle is a factorial combination of whole-number multiples of its quantum attributes. Nature disallows fractional values. For example, when an electron moves from one location to another, it cannot move less than one λ_e in distance and it cannot take less than one t_e of time to do it.

To see how this works, let us analyze a free electron's displacement over time: The quantized displacement unit is λ_e, and the quantized time unit is t_e. A free electron can possess only a speed of (M λ_e) per (N t_e), where M and N are whole numbers. If the value of N is 1, M can assume only a value of either 0 or 1 because if it were greater than 1, the electron would travel at superluminal speed. This phenomenon implies that all matter, on the quantum level, is either immobile or traveling at the speed of light. Thus, whenever an elementary particle moves, it makes a "quantum leap" at the speed of light, during which, observations can determine neither the particle's location nor its momentum (Heisenberg's uncertainy principle).

Let us speculate, then, that an elementary particle makes a speed-of-light "quantum leap" over a quantum distance in a quantum time span in a random manner. Its mass does not increase to infinity because of the shortness of the time span over which the particle possesses luminal speed. Apparently, within quantum-level ranges, quantum attributes of elementary particles can exchange places for short time spans. This accounts for particle tunneling where energy and distance are exchanged.

When an elementary particle enters the energy mode of existence with its conjugate antiparticle, it no longer makes speed-of-light "quantum leaps" in random directions. It makes an uninterrupted series of lightspeed "quantum leaps" in the same direction yet always traveling one quantum-length unit per quantum-time unit at a time. This phenomenon helps explain why the speed of light cannot be exceeded.

An example is an electron and a positron, which combine to produce a photon at the speed of light. Their respective mass and antimass attributes combine for a total mass of zero. See Chapter 13.